SD 



How to Cruise 
Timber 



A COMPLETE 

FIELD MANUAL 




By JOHN W. SHAW 




^MJ^ 



Class — v-^-jj^y^y^ 

Book ■ o < 

Copyright}!^ 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



Ho\^ to Cruise Timber 

Adapted for experienced cruisers 

lo^^ers, foresters, claimants 

or for any one desiring to 

learn to estimate 

timber 

A complete field mauual, -with diagrams and 

explanations of the Standard Methods 

of estimating timber 

Explaining ho^v to pace, how to run the 

compass, ho'w to arrive at an 

estimate, how^ to make 

out a report, etc. 

with 

A synopsis of the requirements for the 

general plan of surveying and the 

establishment of corners in 

public land surveys of 

the United States 



PRICE $1 .00 



By 
JOHN W. SHAW 

POST OFFICE BOX 268 
PORTLAND. OREGON 



<h^ 



0^ 



CO PYR IG HT 1 9 lO 
BY JOHN W. SHAW 

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 



©CI. A 2 755 -6 



PREFACE. 



It has often been remarked, that a knowledge of cruising 
timber cannot be obtained except by long experience in the 
woods. This is true to some extent in judging timber qualities 
and logging conditions, but far from true as regards the syste- 
matic methods of estimating and the hundreds of other neces- 
sary adjuncts to cruising. There are hundreds of men who 
have a thorough knowledge of timber qualities but have no 
idea as to how to arrive at the amount of timber standing on 
a piece of ground. With that fact in mind, and knowing how 
essential it is to have a carefully compiled manual for reference, 
this book was written. 

The writer spent years in obtaining the knowledge neces- 
sary to be able to estimate, when if the same knowledge had 
been available in book form — such as a field manual al- 
ways readily at hand — he could probably have become a prac- 
tical cruiser in a few months, for he would have always had 
the written facts at hand to rely upon. 

To timber estimaters in general, to those who intend learn- 
ing to cruise, and to the hundreds of others interested in tim- 
ber lands this field manual is submitted. 

In compiling Part II, the author wishes to pay his respects 
to John W. Rowland of the United States Surveyor-General's 
office at Portland, Oregon for many valuable suggestions. 

THE AUTHOR. 



PART I. 

CRUISING TIMBER 

Cruising timber, is the act of reducing to board feet the 
amount of standing timber on a given area. There are several 
methods by which standing timber can be reduced to board 
measure and it is these methods and timber cruising in gen- 
eral that this book is intended to explain. 

cruiser's outfit. 

The outfit of a cruiser should be selected to give the most 
comforts with the least weight. The following are the neces- 
sary articles: A No. 2 or No. 3 canvas pack, a light tent for 
long trips, necessary blankets, suit of parafRne for rainy 
weather, pair of the best make of boots, a two-pound axe, one 
hundred-foot tape with hook at end for measuring wind- 
falls, one or two tallying registers for counting timber, supply 
of pencils and note books, celluloid pad, aneroid barometer 
capable of registering altitudes at a heighth of eight thousand 
feet, compass, and a copy of "How to Cruise Timber." 

The two most important instruments in a cruiser's outfit 
are the aneroid barometer and the compass. The barometer, 
as has been stated above, should be capable of registering alti- 
tudes at an elevation of eight thousand feet. It should be of 
reliable make and will cost about twenty dollars. There are 
two kinds of compasses, the box compass and the sight com- 
pass. The box compass is a small instrument as compared 
with the sight compass, intended to be used without staff, and 
to be set while held in the hand. It is not as accurate as the 
sight compass but has been used to good advantage for many 
years. The standard size box compass is the one with the 
21/i-inch needle; it will cost about three dollars. The sight 
compass is more expensive and should have a needle of at 



least SVz inches. It should be equipped with movable dial and 
vernier and provided with Jacob staff and level head. It will 
cost from sixteen to twenty dollars. 

GETTING LOCATED. 

Before leaving for the land from the nearest store or settle- 
ment inquire for trails, roads, cabins, and for the section cor- 
ner nearest the land you intend to examine. If you are not 
fortunate enough to find some one who can give you this in- 
formation, consult your blue-print or map and try to get your 
location by the streams — looking all the while for a line or 
corner. 

MAKING CAMP. 

Having arrived at a point handy to your land look around 
for a place suitable for a camping ground. In the summer 
months look for some shaded nook; in winter for a place where 
the drainage is good and where there is no danger of falling 
snags or limbs. Build your fire where there is no chance of 
it running, and at all times away from logs or trees and 
never go away and leave it burning. Gather plenty of boughs 
for your bed, making yourself as comfortable as possible and 
remembering that the best woodsman is the one who can make 
the most of the least at hand. Cook your food well, make your- 
self generally handy around camp and don't let your com- 
panion do all the work. 

SETTING THE COMPASS. 

The first thing to do before trying to set your compass is 
to determne the variation (See "Declination of the Magnetic 
Needle," Part II). If you are using a box compass, take the 
instrument in both hands, thumbs on edge of dial and fore- 
fingers under the lid that you sight over, and stand facing 
the direction you wish to run. Now, with your elbows set 
firmly against your sides, allow the needle to settle at the 



proper point, and get your sight from the line across the lid 
of the box. The method most commonly used in settling the 
needle, is to tilt the compass slightly so as to allow the posi- 
tive end of the needle to rest firmly against the bottom of the 
dial near the point of variation, and then slowly, by bringing 
j^our compass to a level, allow the needle to rise and settle at 
the proper point. 

Upon examining your instrument you find that the letters 
E and W on the dial are reversed as to the relative directions 
they represent. Say, for example, that you are running on 
a variation of twenty degrees east, then the positions for the 
needle for each point of the compass would be as follows: 
When running north, the positive end of the needle should 
point 20° east of the symbol for north; when running east, it 
should point to the figure 70 just 20° east of the letter E; 
when running south, it should point to the figure 20 just 20° 
east of the letter S; and when running west, it should point 
to the figure 70 just 20° east of the letter W. 

To use the sight compass first set the Jacob staff firmly in 
the ground, slanting it away from you or in the direction you 
wish to run, then after slipping your compass onto the level 
head, which should be firmly fastened to the staff, level the 
instrument and turn it until the needle points to the proper 
figure on the dial. 

RUNNING THE LINE. 

You are now ready to run the line. Your compass being 
set the sights point to some tree or object ahead. Look for 
something about the tree or object that is different from other 
trees or objects; for example, bark markings, odd shaped 
limbs, hanging foliage, a leaning tree near by, or anything 
that will identify your sight tree and don't loose your sight 
at all odds. In timber, so many trees resemble each other, and 
if you are not careful you will soon be running toward the 
wrong tree. Many times you will encounter brush thickets, 



which are unavoidable, but do not step off the line or fail to 
recognize your sight tree upon coming out at the other side. 
If you are in doubt as to the tree you should pace to, set your 
compass again and you will immediately recognize it. Don't 
try to take too long a sight unless you are running in oiean 
open timber, then the longer the better. 

PACING. 

Pacing is the cruiser's method of measuring land ana 
distances. Practice and painstaking effort are the essentials 
for accuracy in pacing. A pace is not a long step nor a short 
one, but a stride two feet and sixty-four hundredths (2.64) in 
length. In pacing, try to step the same distance each step; 
if there is an obstacle in your path — such as a log or brush 
heap — don't try to step upon it, and then off and call it two 
paces, but measure with your eye for the proper distance and 
for the number of paces it will require. 

On ascending steep hills where it is impossible to take a 
full step, step twice for one pace, not long steps that would 
require great effort but short steps that you would naturally 
take in climbing a hill; in descending, use the same method. 
Where the grade is only slight, pace as on level ground, using 
your own judgment as to how often you should pace twice for 
one. Don't try to walk too fast, careful work is th^ best time 
saver. 

TABLES. 
surveyor's tables. 

7.92 inches 1 link 16 sq. rds 1 sq. chain 

100 links 1 chain ,„ 

„^ - . -, ., 10 sq. chains 1 acre 

80 chains 1 mile 



36 sections 1 township 



7 



Long Measure, 

12 inches 1 foot 

3 feet 1 yard 

5V2 yds. or IGVz ft 1 rod 

320 rods 1 mile 



Square Measure. 
144 sq. inches ....1 sq. foot. 

9 sq. feet 1 sq. yard 

3014 sq. yards or. . 

272 1/2 sq. ft 1 sq. rod 

160 sq. rods or. . 
43,560 sq. ft 1 acre 



1 pace 
1 rod , 



cruiser's handy table 

. .2.64 feet 

14 mile . . . 

. . .614 paces 
161/2 feet 



1 chain 



1 tally 



66 feet 
. 4 rods 
25 paces 



% mile 



330 feet 
. 20 rods 1 
125 paces 
5 chains 



mile 



1320 feet 
80 rods 
4 tallys 
20 chains 

2640 feet 
160 rods 
8 tallys 
40 chains 

5280 feet 
320 rods 
16 tallys 
80 chains 



RULE FOR FINDING THE CONTENTS OF LOGS. 

Rule: The contents of a 20-foot log is the square of the 
diameter of the small end under the bark, less three and a|j 



hall" times the diameter. 
Example. What is the 

diameter and 20 feet long? 
32 
32 

64 
96 



contents of a log 32 inches in 



1024 — Square of diameter. 
112 — Less 31/^ times diameter. 

912— Amount in 20-foot log. 
8 



1 



To find the contents of a 16-foot log reduce the 20-foot log 
to 80% of itself; i.e., multiply by 8 and cut off the right hand 
figure. 

cruiser's log table. 

The first rows of figures in the following table, represent 
the diameters of logs measured at the small end under the 
bark; the second rows represent the contents of one foot of 
log of those diameters from which you can readily find the 
contents of any length of log; the third rows give the values of 
16-foot logs of the given diameters. 



Diam. 


1 ft. of log 


16 ft. log 


Diam. 


1 ft. of log 


16 ft. log 


6 


.75 


12 


64 


193.6 


3,097 


7 


1.2 


19 


65 


199.8 


3,197 


8 


1.8 


29 


66 


206.2 


3,300 


9 


2.4 


39 


67 


212.7 


3,403 


10 


3.2 


52 


68 


219.3 


3,508 


11 


. 4.1 


66 


69 


225.8 


3,615 


12 


5.1 


81 


70 


232.7 


3,723 


13 


6.1 


98 


71 


239.6 


3,834 


14 


7.3 


117 


72 


246.6 


3,945 


15 


8.6 


138 


73 


253.6 


4,058 


16 


10 


160 


74 


260.8 


4,173 


17 


11.4 


183 


75 


268.1 


4,290 


18 


13.1 


210 


76 


275.5 


4,408 


19 


14.7 


235 


77 


282.9 


4,527 


20 


16.5 


264 


78 


290.5 


4,648 


21 


18.3 


294 


79 


298.2 


4,771 


22 


20.3 


325 


80 


306 


4,896 


23 


22.4 


358 


81 


313.8 


5,021 


24 


24.6 


393 


82 


321.8 


5,149 


25 


26.6 


429 


83 


329.9 


5,279 



26 29.2 468 84 338.1 5,409 

27 31.7 507 85 346.3 5,541 



Diam. 


1 ft. of log 


16 ft. log 


Diam. 


1 ft. of log 


16 ft. log 


28 


33.3 


532 


86 


354.7 


5,676 


29 


36.9 


591 


87 


363.2 


5,811 


30 


39.7 


636 


88 


371.8 


5,948 


31 


42.6 


682 


89 


380.4 


6,087 


32 


45.6 


729 


90 


389.2 


6,228 


33 


48.6 


778 


91 


398.1 


6,370 


34 


51.8 


829 


92 


407.1 


6,513 


35 


55.1 


882 


93 


416.1 


6,657 


36 


58.5 


936 


94 


425.3 


6,805 


37 


61.9 


991 


95 


434.6 


6,954 


38 


65.5 


1,048 


96 


444 


7,104 


39 


69.2 


1,107 


97 


453.4 


7,255 


40 


73 


1,168 


98 


463 


7,408 


41 


76.8 


1,228 


99 


472.7 


7,563 


42 


80.8 


1,293 


100 


482.5 


7,720 


43 


84.9 


1,358 


101 


492.4 


7,878 


44 


89.1 


1,425 


102 


502.3 


8,037 


45 


93.3 


1,493 


103 


512.4 


8,198 


46 


97.7 


1,564 


104 


522.6 


8,361 


47 


102.2 


1,635 


105 


532.8 


8,525 


48 


106.8 


1,708 


106 


543.2 


8,691 


49 


111.4 


1,783 


107 


553.7 


8,859 


50 


116.2 


1,860 


108 


564.3 


9,028 


51 


121.1 


1,938 


109 


574.9 


9,199 


52 


126.1 


2,017 


110 


585.7 


9,371 


53 


131.1 


2,098 


111 


596.6 


9,545 


54 


136.3 


2,181 


112 


607.6 


9,721 


55 


141.6 


2,268 


113 


618.1 


9,890 


56 


147 


2,352 


114 


629.8 


10,077 


57 


152.4 


2,438 


115 


641.1 


10,257 


58 


158 


2,528 


116 


652.5 


10,440 


59 


163.7 


2,619 


117 


663.9 


10,623 


60 


169.5 


2,712 


118 


675.5 


10,808 


61 


175.3 


2,805 


119 


687.2 


10,995 


62 


181.3 


2,901 


120 


699 


11,184 


63 


187.4 


2,998 









10 



CONTENTS OF TKEES. 

A timber estimator takes as his unit of length, a 16-foot log, 
and divides his standing timber into as many log-lengths as it 
will cut. After knowing how many logs long a tree is, it is 
then necessary to know what the taper is of that tree, so that 
an average log may be obtained and the contents of the 
tree figured out; or better still, so that each log may be scaled 
separately. We know that trees do not taper gradually, so 
at best in computing a standing forest, we can only take 
sample trees with tapers characteristic of that particular tim- 
ber and make our estimate of the average tree from this data. 
It is plain that no estimator could ever, separately, get the 
contents of each tree as it stands in the forest, without con- 
suming a great amount of time and incurring too much ex- 
pense to his employer; so he can only carefully grade the 
timber with his eye as he passes through and then determine 
what the contents should be for the average tree of each grade 
he has found. 

There are several methods employed by the cruiser for ob- 
taining the contents of these average trees: One method, is 
to obtain the average log by dividing the sum of the diameter 
of the first log (small end) and top log, by 2; then, multiplying 
the number of board feet in this log by the number of logs in 
the tree. Another method, is to arrive at the taper from sample 
down-trees and scale each 16-foot log separately. Still an- 
other method, is to obtain your amounts from volume tables 
of which there are several published, and which show the 
values for the entire tree of the given butt measurement and 
length. 

GRADING TIMBER. 

To intelligently make a report after the field work has been 
done, the cruiser must have data from the examinations 
made, that will give the one reading the report a clear idea 

11 



as to the conditions found. Nothing is more essential to a 
report than the size and quality of the timber and the grading 
of the same. 

Yellow fir, and timber of similar growth, should always be 
returned in at least three sizes; that is, the per cent of each 
grade found. Red fir can be returned in two sizes, provided 
the timber is all under 40 inches butt measurement, and three, 
if any great amount of the stand exceeds 40 inches — in both 
cases, piling should be recorded separately. Where there is 
only a small percentage of some one species, mixed with the 
predominating variety of timber, it is not necessary to grade 
that species but only return the average size, 

THE AVERAGE TREE. 

When a cruiser has made a count of an acre or more of 
ground and finds that he has a number of trees recorded, he 
should then know what the average tree is of that count, or 
the average tree of each grade if he is grading the timber. 
One method is to measure every tenth or twentieth tree re- 
corded, or the equivalent thereof; this is done by having the 
compassman measure the required number of trees at the end 
of each tally. Another method is to make careful measure- 
ment of all the trees on sample acres through the tract, thus 
obtaining the average tree, or the graded sizes, at your option. 
A better method is to throw your timber into grades as you 
travel through the stand, and record by ocular measurement, 
the exact number of trees that will fall within each grade. 

THINGS YOU SHOULD KNOW. 

Surface clear, is the portion of a tree free from knots, limbs, 
or defects of any kind. 

Trees 36 inches in diameter and up, and from 50 to 65 per 
cent surface clear, will cut one and two flooring logs, two to 
four No. 1 merchantable logs, and one or more No. 2 mer- 
chantable logs; logs in this case understood to be 32 feet in 
length. 

12 



Trees do not taper as much under the bark as outside the 
bark. 



Bark of yellow fir is soft and thick, while that of red fir is 
hard and thin, so be careful of your butt measurements. 

Down yellow fir will last many more years than dead- 
standing; dead-standing, if fire killed, will be sound from eight 
to fifteen years. Fire killed red fir of good size will remain 
sound from three to eight years. Fire killed hemlock will 
remain sound for three years. 



The percentage of breakage in falling timber depends so 
much upon the conditions prevailing and the skill of the faller 
that only close observation can guide the cruiser in making the 
proper deductions. It is obvious that there would be more 
loss from breakage in falling on very broken or stony surface 
than upon smooth soil; however very old, green yellow fir, and 
fire killed or dead timber, will have much loss from breakage 
on the best of ground. 



The standard railroad tie is eight feet long; they are cut in 
several different sizes, according to order. The following table 
is self-explanatory: 

Dimension Contains No. of Ties to M. 

6x8 32 board feet 31.25 

7x9 42 board feet 23.8095 

7x8 37 board feet 2G.7859 

6x9 36 board feet 27.7777 



In figuring standing timber into cordwood, a thousand 
board feet as contained in a log is equivalent to a cord of 
wood. There must, however, be allowance made for bark, 
limbs, and the tops of the trees; this sometimes amounting to 
a 25 per cent increase, where there is thick bark and a heavy 
growth of limbs. 

13 



THE cruiser's WORK. 

Having explained the manner of finding the contents of logs 
and trees, we will now explain in a general way how the 
cruiser's work is done — explaining the different methods later. 

Starting through the timber with tape and tallying registers 
at hand the cruiser walks from ten to twenty-five paces behind 
the compassman, keeping him always in sight. At first you 
proceed very slowly, as you wish to measure many trees in 
order to be sure of your sizes and to train the eye; then, as 
you become more familiar with the stand of timber you are 
estimating, your speed increases. It matters not what distance 
from you, on each side of you, you are counting, it is always 
best to pace off frequently — or rather, have your compassman 
do so — for the exact distance. You have now, we will say, 
traveled one tally, and have a count of tne number of trees 
for a certain width in that distance; you will then record on 
your celluloid pad, the trees in their proper grades and 
lengths, being careful to mark plainly on the leaf of the pad 
the description of the forty-acre tract you are estimating. 
Thus you continue, making a record of your count at the end 
of each tally, or until you have gone the length of four tallys 
or across the forty-acre tract. 

Work the land to the very best advantage, taking into con- 
sideration the roughness of the ground and the difficulties to 
be encountered in traveling. Do not try to do too much for a 
day's work, for your employer will be satisfied with two or 
three miles of estimating per day, provided he knows the work 
is being well done. At night when you return to camp, com- 
pute your records for the day so that you can always be ready 
with your final reports when called upon. 

A study of the different methods of cruising, as illustrated 
and explained on the following pages, will give a clear idea 
of the principal methods in use today. In cruising, by count- 

14 



ing a certain number of acres out of each forty-acre tract to 
base your estimate from, the writer prefers the strip-acre 
method as described and illustrated under diagram A; it is 
simple, the most accurate, and the best method for saving 
time. It is best, however, for the beginner to understand all 
of the methods herein described. 

DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF CRUISING. 
To specifically explain the different methods of making an 
estimate of a forty-acre tract, the following diagrams with 
their explanations, have been prepared by the author: 




DIAGBAM A. 



Diagram A, represents a forty-acre tract. The heavy lines 
crossing at right angles, subdivide the forty acres into sixteen 
parts, of 2^2 acres each, and the shaded portions represent the 
part of the land which the cruiser actually counts — the arrows 
showing the direction he travels, and the dotted lines, the 
exact lines the compassman runs. This diagram explains the 
method known as the strip-acre method of cruising; and by 
which the cruiser obtains (actual count) one acre out of each 
21/4-acre tract, or 16 acres out of the forty. 

Beginning at S, pace in 62i^ paces to L, then 4 tallys (500 
paces) to K, counting all the timber 25 paces on each side of 
you as you go, and recording the number of trees of the dif- 
ferent grades you are making, at the end of each tally, noting 
the average length of the trees in 16-foot logs, on each 2l^-acre 
tract. Arriving at K, pace 125 paces (one tally) to R and 
thence to M, to J, to H, to O, and finish. 

By this method you only obtain two-fifths of the actual 
amount of timber on the forty, to make your estimate from. 
Care should be taken to get a fair average of the amount on 
each 21/^ -acre tract. Should your cruising line not extend 
through a fair average of the 2% -acre tract count all the tim- 
ber, getting the average tree and reducing the Vv'hole amount to 
two-fifths. Thus you have a separate estimate on each 2%- 
acre tract, and your tally sheet should show, approximately, 
the whole number of trees, with their sizes, on each of thcsG 
tracts. 



16 













DIAGRAM B. 

Diagram B, represents the method of cruising a forty-acre 
tract, by the circle-acre system. The lines are run through the 
forty the same as in diagram A — the cruiser stopping at the 
center of each 2 1^ -acre tract, and counting an acre in a circle. 
A circle-acre, is all land embraced in a circle with a radius of 
117.77 feet or 44.6 paces from a given center. As in the 



17 



method described under diagram A, you should count all the 
timber in a 2i4:-acre tract, if the circle-acre does not fall in a 
fair average of the timber on that tract. When you have 
finished you will have 16 acres actual count or two-fifths of 
the timber. 






TH 


1 


11 









^ 


^^ 


^^ 


\^ 


nWV 


\N\\ 



Ml 









DIAGRAM C. 



Diagram C, represents a forty-acre tract and the method of 
cruising it by the square-acre system. The cruising lines are 



18 



run identically the same as in diagram A, the method being 
almost the same as the circle-acre system, except: that after 
arriving at L from S, the compassman announces the first 23 
paces stepped off on the cruising line, and then paces 79 steps 
more (the width of the square acre), and then again 23 paces 
to the end of the tally. The cruiser, following the compassman, 
does not begin to count timber until the first 23 paces are 
stepped off; then he counts the length of the acre (79 paces), 
covering 39.5 paces on each side of him. Thus the cruiser 
continues through each 2i/^-acre tract until all 16 are counted, 
giving him two-fifths of the timber. 

As in the circle or strip-acre methods, if the square acre 
does not fall upon a fair average of the timber in the 2^^- 
acre tract, count all the timber in that tract, getting the aver- 
age tree and bringing the number of trees down to two-fifths. 
To make it more clear, the square acres to be counted are rep- 
resented by the shaded portions on the diagram, and the 
figures given between the crosses are the distances in paces 
between such points. 

Most of the timber on the Pacific Coast has been cruised 
by only double-running each forty; i.e. obtaining a count of 
eight acres out of each forty, from which to make the esti- 
mate of the whole amount on the tract. In preliminary work, 
the cruiser only makes a single run of each forty, thus only 
obtaining a general idea of the stand and quality of the tim- 
ber, which if satisfactory, will later be thoroughly cruised. 

Tracts may be double-run by any of the systems described 
on these pages. The method of double-running, is to pace in 
125 paces from the corner of a forty-acre tract, and run two 
parallel cruising lines through the forty in such a manner, that 
you will at all times be able to see a tally on each side of you — 
that you may not escape any of the important data or features 
of the land or timber. The following diagram (D), illustrates 
a double-run by the strip-acre method of cruising: 

19 









>sh 



THE TREE-COUNT SYSTEM. 

By the tree-count system we mean an actual count of every 
merchantable tree on each forty-acre tract. In ordinary yel- 
low pine or not too dense fir, the timber can be counted by 
running each forty four times, counting all timber on each 2^4- 
acre tract (G2i^ paces on each side of you) at one run. How- 
ever, should the timber have a very heavy and dense growth 
of underbrush, or stand more than 50 M. per acre, the forty 



20 



should be run eight times, making an actual count Sl^^ 
paces on each side of you. 

The first thing to do before beginning to cruise by this 
method, is to run out and plainly blaze the section lines; also 
to run a line across the center of the section connecting two 
quarter-section corners which stand on parallel section lines — 
as you should always run your cruising lines parallel, to pa- 
rallel section lines if possible. As the section lines are run 
and blazed, stake off on two sides of the section, the points 
where your cruising lines should begin and end. This is done 
so you can be absolutely sure you are running your cruising 
lines parallel to one another and not be recounting the timber. 

This work should always be done with a sight compass. 
The true variation of the magnetic needle should be very care- 
fully determined from the field notes, or be obtained when 
running the parallel section lines. 

In making the necessary calculations for the average size 
tree on each 2i^-acre tract, cruisers use different methods; 
some getting the average size tree by having the compassman 
measure every tenth or twentieth tree counted, and others 
obtaining their average by getting the actual size of every 
tree on sample acres throughout the forty. By the first 
method, the compassman — using the Jacob staff as a rule — 
measures the number of trees near the cruising line, desig- 
nated by the cruiser as being equivalent to one for every ten 
or twenty trees counted. In using the tree-count system of 
cruising the cruiser should take up his timber every half tally 
(621/^ paces), and when finished, will have an actual count of 
every merchantable tree on each forty, showing the average 
size and length of same. 

ACREAGE. 

By examining your blue-print of a township, you will notice 
that the excess or deficiency in acreage (explained in Part II) 

21 



is generally along the north and west boundaries of the town- 
ship. These are known as lots, and contain more or less than 
forty acres as the case may be. On the north tier the lots 
are exactly 20 chains (80 rods) wide from east to west, but 
are more or less than 20 chains from north to south. The lots 
on the west boundary of the township, are exactly 20 chains 
wide from north to south but are more or less than 20 chains 
from east to west. Now, if a lot is 80 rods in width, every 
strip 2 rods wide across that width will contain an acre, or 
160 square rods. Reducing rods to paces, every strip 12.5 
paces wide and 4 tallys (80 rods) long will contain an acre. 
To determine the number of paces long a lot would be, when 
it is 80 rods wide, multiply the number of acres in the lot by 
12.5. Example: How many paces long is a lot 80 rods wide 
and containing 46.80 acres: 



46.80 
12.5 



23400 
9360 
4680 



585.000 paces. 

The area of an acre, is 43,560 square feet or 6,250 square 
paces. 

A square acre, is 79.057 paces square. 

A circle-acre, is all embraced in a radius of 117.77 feet or 
44.6 paces from a given center. 

One-third of an acre contains 14,520 square feet or 2,083 
square paces. 

One-third of an acre in a circle, is all embraced in a 
radius of 68 feet or 25.78 paces from a given center. 

22 



Acres in a rectangle may be: 100x62i^ paces or 125x50 
paces. 

For the convenience of the cruiser, the following rule? 
are given: 

To find the circumference of a circle whose diameter is 
known. Rule: Multpily the diameter by 3.1416. 

To find the diameter the circumference being known. 
Rule: Divide the circumference by 3.1416. 

To find the area of a circle, the diameter being known. 
Rule: Multpily the square of half the diameter by 3.1416. 

To find the area of a circle, the circumference being known. 
Rule: Divide the square of half the circumference by 3.1416. 

To find the area of a circle, the circumference and diameter 
both being known. Rule: Multiply the circumference by one- 
fourth of the diameter. 

To find the diameter or circumference of a circle, the area 
being known. Rule: Divide the area by 3.1416, the square 
root of the quotient will be equal to half the diameter; and 
the diameter multiplied by 3.1416 will equal the circumference. 

CALCULATING THE CONTENT. 

To culculate the content of differently shaped pieces of 
land the following rules are given: 

1. Rectangle. The content of a rectangle is found by 
multiplying its length by its breadth. 

2. Triangle. In computing the area of a triangle, either 
side may be assumed as the base and the altitude will be the 
perpendicular let fall from the vertex of the angle opposite 
upon the base. To be more clear, the perpendicular is the 
shortest distance from the base to the opposite angle. 

To find the content of a triangle, multiply the base by one- 
half the altitude and the product will be the area. 

23 



3. Parallelogram. A parallelogram is a four-sided figure 
whose opposite sides are parallel. The content of a parallelo- 
gram equals the product of one of its sides by the perdendicu- 
lar distance between it and the side parallel to it. 

4. Trapezoid. A Trapezoid is a four-sided figure, of which 
two opposite sides only, are parallel. The content of a 
Trapezoid equals half the product of the sum of the parallel 
sides by the perpendicular distance between them. 

5. Trapezium. A four-sided figure, none of whose sides 
are parallel. Divide the Trapezium into two triangles by 
running a line across it from corner to corner, and then find 
the content of each triangle, as in 2. 

MAKING A REPORT. 

A cruiser's report is a record of the cruiser's work. It 
should contain everything necessary to convey a clear idea 
as to the exact conditions of the land and timber. In former 
years owners of timber were satisfied to receive a report 
showing only the amount of timber on each forty-acre tract, 
regardless of the size of timber found, and were satisfied if 
the land was only double run; but at the present time — 
values being much higher — the most complete returns are none 
too good. 

Have your compassman keep a complete record of such 
things as: streams and their courses, hills and their slopes, 
aneroid readings, clearings and burned areas, and the general 
condition of the land. The following diagram subdividing the 
different sections of a report blank, will be helpful in making 
a complete report: 

("Species. 

Average size and length of trees. 
Amount of surface clear. 
Age of timber. 
What per cent of defect? 

24 



Size and quality of 
timber. 



Distance to driv- 
able stream or 
railroad. 



Flogging conditions 
favorable or 
otherwise. 



Damage by fire. 



Probabilities of 
fire. 



Kind and value of 
land when 
denuded. 



General remarks. 



How large a stream? 

Into what does it empty? 

Has it ever been driven? 

Is there plenty of water for fluming? 

Distance from railroad. 

What is the general slope of the ground? 

How steep? 

Is the soil rocky or swampy? 

Are there many ravines? 

Is the tract divided by high ridges? 

Is the timber isolated? 

Does any burned timber surround it? 

What chance for mill site and fluming? 

Feasibility of logging railroad. 

State the extent of fire damage. 
How many years since burned? 

Dampness of ground. 

Growth of underbrush. 

Condition of surrounding growth. 

State is much dead brush or down timber. 
(Quality of soil. 
I Bottom land if any. 

Suitability of land, 
lvalue of land. 

What is the timber best adapted for? 
State if any small timber not counted. 
If any wagon roads or trails. 
How you classed your timber. 
How many times you run each forty. 
What defects you found if any. 
Location of buildings, fences or clearings. 
25 



TOPOGRAPHY. 

The topography of a tract of land is a detailed description 
of that land shown by representation. 

A topographic map is one which shows with practical 
accuracy, all the drainage, improvement, and relief features 
which the scale of representation will permit. By drainage, 
we mean the water courses; i.e. rivers, creeks, ponds, lakes, 
etc. By improvements, we mean the results of human 
efforts; clearings, slashings, fences, roads, trails, railroads, 
houses, barns, mills, etc. By relief features, we mean the 
contour of the land; the profile or outline of the surface of 
the land. 

The topographic map is of great value to a report. If 
carefully drawn from your notes taken in the field, it will be 
an exact reproduction of the surface conditions reduced to 
scale; in other words it will be a picture, or birdseye view of 
the land. A study of the methods of representation and how 
to make a neat topographic map are important adjuncts to a 
cruiser's fund of knowledge. Be careful not to overlook any- 
thing in the field and by making notes in your notebook, or 
on your blank diagram of sections in your estimate book, you 
can keep an accurate record of all things necessary for mak- 
ing a complete map. 

Take your aneroid readings at the top of each ridge and 
at the bottom of each ravine, wherever you cross them with 
your cruising lines as you pass back and forth through the 
forty. If you are cruising an entire section, take readings at 
each section corner; and if only part, of a section, at the 
corners touching the land you are cruising. 



26 



PART II. 

SURVEY OF THE PUBLIC LANDS OF THE 
UNITED STATES. 

The regulations for the survey of the public lands of the 
United States, adopted by Congress, are made to conform to 
the meridians and parallels of the earth. 

In various sections of the country points were established 
known as initial points; and from each of these points a 
principal meridian, conforming to a true meridian and a base 
line, conforming to a parallel of latitude, were run north and 
south and east and west respectively, from which all surveys 
in that particular part of the country were made. North and 
south of the base line, and parallel to it, lines were established 
twenty-four miles apart known as standard parallels; and east 
and west of the principal meridian, guide meridians, with the 
same space intervening, were fixed. 

After the establishment of these principal lines, the land 
was divided into tracts six miles square known as townships. 
These townships were subdivided into thirty-six parts of one 
mile square each, known as sections. Beginning at the north- 
east corner of the township and numbering from left to right 
in each tier, the sections were numbered consecutively from 
one to thirty-six. Corners were established at each of the 
corners of a township, at each of the corners of the sections 
and at intervals of one-half mile from each section corner, so 
that the land could be easily found by the settler and its 
boundaries definitely located. To designate the location of a 
township, as it relates to the principal meridian and base line, 
it is necessary to have some system by which each township 
is known. When we say, township 3 south, we mean that the 
township in question is in the third tier of townships south of 
the base line. This does not definitely locate it, so we deter- 

27 



mine in what range tier it is, east or west of the principal 
meridian. Supposing the range tier to be 7 east, then we would 
say: Township 3 south, range 7 east. 

The following table shows the location of the standard 
parallels in Oregon and Washington: 

OREGON. 

Name West of Cascade Mts. East of Cascade Mts. 



1st 


North.. 


.Bet. 


Tps. 


4 and 5 N.. . 


.Bet. 


Tps. 


4 and 5 N. 


1st 


South. 


..Bet. 


Tps. 


5 and 6 S.. 


..Bet. 


Tps. 


5 and 6 S. 


2nd 


South. 


..Bet. 


Tps. 


10 and 11 S.. 


..Bet. 


Tps. 


10 and 11 S. 


3rd 


South . 


..Bet. 


Tps. 


13 and 14 S.. 


..Bet. 


Tps. 


15 and 16 S. 


4th 


South. 


..Bet. 


Tps. 


18 and 19 S.. 


. . Bet. 


Tps. 


20 and 21 S. 


5th 


South. 


..Bet. 


Tps. 


22 and 23 S.. 


. . Bet. 


Tps. 


25 and 26 S. 


Gth 


South. 


..Bet. 


Tps. 


27 and 28 S.. 


..Bet. 


Tps. 


30 and 31 S, 


7th 


South. 


..Bet. 


Tps. 


32 and 33 S.. 


..Bet. 


Tps. 


35 and 36 S, 


Sth 


South. 


. . Bet. 


Tps. 


35 and 36 S.. 


. . Bet. 


Tps. 


39 and 40 S, 


9th 


South. 


..Bet. 


Tps. 


39 and 40 S. 









WASHINGTON. 
Name (Extend entirely through State) 

1st North Bet. Tps. 4 and 5 North 

2nd North Bet. Tps. 8 and 9 North 

3rd North Bet. Tps. 12 and 13 North 

4th North Bet. Tps. 16 and 17 North 

5th North Bet. Tps. 20 and 21 North 

6th North Bet. Tps. 24 and 25 North 

7th North Bet. Tps. 28 and 29 North 

Sth North Bet. Tps. 32 and 33 North 

9th North Bet. Tps. 36 and 37 North 



If you will examine an ordinary schoolroom globe you will 
notice that the meridian lines of the earth drawn from pole to 
pole, are farthest apart at the Equator, and that they come 

28 



closer together as they approach the poles; i.e., their con- 
vergency increases as we go south or north from the Equator. 
This being true (we being north of the Equator), if we make 
our surveys to conform to true meridians, each township will 
be narrower at the northern than at the southern border; it 
will then make them, not a square, but a trapezoid. In sur- 
veying, this is what is known as convergency. 

If a township was perfectly square, it would contain 36 
full sections of 640 acres each, or 23,040 acres; but owing to 
convergency they may be more or less as the case may be. It 
is required by law, that the excess or deficiency in acreage 
shall fall upon the north and west boundaries of a township; 
i.e., a surveyor in subdividing a township, finishes his lines at 
the north and west sides and throws the excess or deficiency 
of the length of his lines between the last quarter-section cor- 
ner, established, and a point where the line he is surveying 
intersects the township line thus closed upon. The surveyor 
is required to make the length of the lines between section 
corners, eighty chains, and the quarter-section corners must 
be established at an equidistant point between such section 
corners — except on lines of sections on the north and west 
sides of a township, as noted above. 

By examining Diagram 1, you will notice that townships, 
owing to various irregularities, do not always come together 
at common corners, but that they sometimes corner in such 
a manner that the corners which limit their boundaries relate 
to one, two, or four townships as the conditions may require. 
In the diagram, the corners (b) represent township corners 
common to two townships only, and corners (a) represent 
corners v,"hich refer to one township only. You will also find 
that townships are not always subdivided as a theoretically 
perfect township should be, but that fractional tracts are 
sometimes thrown on different sides or parts of a township. 

29 







R.3^ 


iA/( 






,., 1 


R2W 

1 _i_ 


1 




R IV 


V 














i 1 










T4S 






<o 














^. 


^H 










^^ 






■ 






' 






-^ 


«'' ^ 










-^ 






































































T5S. — 

































































— 


^c 














6 


^i&_ 














— r 


?--',.s 








i 








W^^ie^ 




1 




2 






































! 






































T6S 






















! 












































































jl 






A 





















TOWNSHIP EXTERIORS. 

As originally intended, blocks of land 24 miles square were 
to be surveyed, making 16 townships in a block. Owing most- 
ly to the difficulties that arose in opening up new country, 
this has not been carried out, and the result is that the stand- 
ard parallels and guide meridians have not always been placed 



30 



at the proper interval. (See table of standard parallels in 
Oregon and Washington.) 

The exterior lines of a township are often established under 
separate contract from that of subdividing the interiors. In 
making these exterior surveys the meridional boundary lines 
always have precedence — being established on true meridian 
lines — while the latitudinal township lines are first run on 
random or trial lines, and then corrected back on true lines 
which fit the requirements. While these lines are being run, 
the regular section and quarter-section corners are established, 
to be later used as guides in subdividing. 

If in running the lines of the boundaries of a township, the 
lines should fall short of, or overrun the correct aggregate of 
those lines more than three chains (making due allowance for 
convergency), then parts or all of those lines are retracted to 
correct the error; and should the last line run fall to the 
right or left of the objective corner more than three chains, 
then as before the error must be corrected. 



31 



fo 1 


1 

y^*^i8 ► 


^1 


'1 




/ 

>-M— '«. » 


7 ^ 

* ^56-«-M 


8 ^ 

>->^5S ► 


'i 


,0 ! 

i 

«^30 > 




/2 


/8 J 


17 ? 


/6 1 


/5 s 


1 

14 - 


/J 




20 « 




J 


»-j— /5 »■ 


2-^ 

>-»->- 4 ► 


30 ? 


1 


28 :g 


27 5 


26 ^ 


25 

>-v*-2 >. 


51 I 


i 


t 


.1 


35 - 

1 


36 



TOWNSHIP INTERIORS. 

After the exterior lines of a township are run, the sur- 
veyor then subdivides the same into sections of one mile 
square each. The lines running north and south are made to 
comply with true meridians and those running east and west 
are in conformity with parallels of latitude. If correctly run, 
the exterior line on the east side of the township to be sub- 
divided is a true meridian, and the meridional lines subdivid- 



32 



ing the township (section lines') will be run parallel to this 
exterior line. It must be noted, however, that often discrep- 
ancies or gross errors exist in the establishment of this east 
boundary which cannot be corrected, in which case the sur- 
veyor would run the meridional section lines of the extreme 
eastern tier of sections as true meridians, and all other merid- 
ional sectional lines within the township parallel to these 
lines: throwing the fractional acreage upon the east side, as 
well as upon the north and west sides of the township. 

We will say, for example, that the eastern boundary of a 
township is correct as to requirements; then the surveyor 
would subdivide that township by the following method: 

Starting at the corner to sections 35 and 36, on the south 
boundary of the township, the first section line (80 chains 
long) of the subdivision is extended northward parallel to 
the eastern boundary of the township. At forty chains on 
the line a quarter-section corner (VjS.) is established and at 
eighty chains a section corner for sections 2.5, 2G. 35 and 36 
(see diagram 2). Now, turning eastward, it is the surveyor's 
object to run a section line parallel to the south boundarv of 
the township and strike the objective corner already estab- 
lished on the east boundar3^ In order to do this, the sur- 
veyor runs this line as a trial or random line as he extends it 
eastward, placing at 40 chains a temporary quarter-section 
corner and noting the distance his line falls north or south 
of the objective corner, calculates the correct course by which 
to return westward by a true line. Upon running the random 
line no bl^izes are made upon the trees, but upon returning on 
a true line, the line is plainly marked to comply with the 
regulations and the quarter-section corner is made permanent 
at the proper point. 

Thus, the west and north boundaries of the eastern tier of 
sections are established, until the line to be run from the 

33 



corner to sections 1, 2, 11 and 12 to the north boundary of the 
township, is reached; then, this line between sections 1 and 2, 
is projected northward on a random line parallel to the east 
boundary of the township, the surveyor setting a post for a 
temporary quarter-section corner at forty chains and noting 
the point where his trial line intersects the township boun- 
dary. Returning upon a true course, the surveyor obtains by 
measurement the exact distance from the township line to the 
true point for the quarter-section corner, thus throwing the 
excess or deficiency of the length of the line in this space, and 
thereby leaving the fractional acreage of section 1 on the 
north boundary. It often happens that it is impossible for 
the surveyor to intersect the township line within the pre- 
scribed limits of 50 links distance of an established corner, in 
which case a new corner would be established, known as a 
closing corner. 

By this manner each successive tier of sections running 
from north to south is surveyed, until the fifth tier is reached; 
where, from the section corners established on the west boun- 
dary of this tier of sections, random lines are projected to 
their intersection with the west boundary of the township. 
Quarter-section corners are established on true lines at forty 
chains west of said section corners, and the measurement 
taken from these points to the township line, throws the frac- 
tional acreage west of such quarter-section corners establishea 
and thus upon the western boundary of the township. 

It happens occasionally that the township boundaries are 
so irregular as not to allow of the foregoing requirements for 
subdivision, so some of the common irregularities are here 
noted: We will suppose, for example, that the eastern boun- 
dary of the township does not run (for good reasons) on a 
true meridian, and that the corners established on that boun- 
dary are in such positions that they cannot be regularly- 
closed upon; then the western boundary of the first tier of 

34 



sections on the eastern side of the township, will be run on a 
true meridian and all other meridional section lines in that 
township will be run parallel to this line; however, fractional 
acreage will be thrown upon the eastern boundary of such a 
township, as well as upon the north and west boundaries. An- 
other example would be, where the east boundary of a town- 
ship was without section corners and the north boundary was 
run eastwardly as a true line, with section corners at regular 
intervals of 80 chains; the subdivision would proceed then, 
from west to east, and fractional measurements and areas 
would be thrown against the irregular east boundary. Where 
by reason of impassable objects, or other reasons, no part of 
the south boundary of a township can be regularly established, 
the subdivision proceeds from north to south and from east 
to west thereby throwing all fractional measurements and 
areas against the west boundary. 

BUNNING LINES. 

In surveying, the marking of trees and brush along lines, 
is required by law as positively as the erection of monuments 
or corners. All lines, on which are established the legal 
corner boundaries, are marked by the following method: Those 
trees which are intersected by the line (sight trees), have 
two chops or notches cut on the two sides facing the line, 
without any other marks whatever. A sufficient number of 
other trees standing within 50 links of the line, on either 
sMe of it, are blazed on two sides diagonally or quartering 
toward the line, the blazes being opposite each other, coincid- 
ing in direction with the line where the trees stand very 
near it, and approaching each other on the side next the line, 
the farther away from the line the trees stand. On a trial or 
random line the trees are not marked in any manner, only 
the true lines being blazed. 

It is generally very easy to pick up a line by the blazes 

35 



on the trees, but occasionally it is very difficult owing to the 
fact that at times the axman was negligent. Where he had 
difficulty in traveling on steep hillsides or in dense under- 
brush, you will find very few blazes along the line, showing he 
was too busy here making his way to mark the line. Trees 
blazed to mark the line, were generally marked about four 
feet from the ground, however, in the pine woods you will 
often find them much higher, as if scored by an axman on 
horseback. 

If you are in doubt as to whether marks or scores on trees 
are blazes, examine carefully the bark at the upper edge of 
the mark, and no matter how old, you can invariably tell if 
the mark was made with an axe, or if the abrasion was only 
the result of a falling snag or limb striking the tree. Finding 
a tree in the forest with blazes on both sides — the blazes being 
old enough for the time the line was surveyed — then set your 
compass and see if the blazes correspond to a north and south 
or an east and west line. If the tree is really a line tree you 
will if you extend a line the proper direction from it, soon 
discover another tree v/ith the same blazes as the first tree 
discovered, and so on until you reach a corner. 

Surveyors are required to record in their field notes the 
points in measurement where the line crosses streams, hill- 
tops, etc. Should you have access to the field notes, or if you 
will calculate these distances from the established corners on 
the line by examining your blue-print, it will be very helpful 
in determining the approximate location of a corner, which if 
still in existence, can be easily found. 

If in running a line the surveyor should encounter an 
impassable obstacle such as a swamp, pond, or marsh (not 
meanderable,) the line is prolonged by triangulation or right- 
angle offsets across such obstruction. As a guide to aline- 
rnent and measurement, the line is perpetuated by establishing 
at the margins of the obstruction a witness point (W P). 



Should it happen that the point for a legal corner fall in the 
obstruction, then if the distance to said corner in the obstruc- 
tion is less than 20 chains, instead of erecting a witness point, 
a witness corner is established (W C). 

MEANDEEINQ. 

Streams of certain character and bodies of water large 
enough to be of note, are meandered. By meandering, we 
mean that the surveyor follows by a succession of lines all 
the minute windings of the borders of that stream or body of 
water, in order that the borders can be definitely located and 
the amount of acreage thrown into fractions along such bor- 
ders. In meandering streams proceeding down stream, the 
bank on the left hand is termed the left bank and the bank 
on the right hand is termed the right bank. Only navigable 
streams and those more than three chains wide are mean- 
dered with the following exceptions: Streams which are less 
than three chains wide and so deep, swift and dangerous as 
to be impassable through the agricultural season, are mean- 
dered, where there are good agricultural lands along the 
shores. Tide water streams, whether more or less than tnree 
chains in width, are always meandered. 

To definitely locate the starting points for meandered lines, 
meander corners (M C) are erected at the intersection of the 
meandered lines with those of standard, township, or section 
lines regularly established. These are called regular meander 
corners. Those meander corners established on lines belong- 
ing to the system of rectangular surveying not identical with 
standard, township, or section lines; i.e., subdivisional lines 
of a section, are called special meander corners (SMC). 
Meander corners on a line not belonging to the system of 
rectangular surveying, are called auxiliary meander corners 
(AMC). 

37 



CORNERS. 

We have stated previously in a general way, the prin- 
cipal corners necessary to perpetuate rectangular surveying. 
We will now try to explain more fully these various corners, 
so they may be identified when found. 

The exact points for corners are perpetuated, by raising a 
mound over a deposit, by firmly setting a stone, by driving a 
stake, by marking a stone ledge, or by marking a tree which 
happens to come in place. The exact points to be perpetuated 
as corners are often not so well marked as the objects which 
are used to witness them. In prairie country, pits are dug and 
a mound raised, as accessories, while in a timbered country 
trees are scored (facing corner) and marked with the town- 
ship, range and section numbers they identify. These trees, 
or accessories of a corner, are called bearing trees (B. T.), 
and their exact position in distance and direction from the 
corner is recorded in the field notes. Sometimes as an acces- 
sory to a corner, a large stone or cliff, being close at hand, 
the surveyor may mark it as an accessory. It would be called 
a bearing object, and would be marked with the letters B. O. in 
addition to the township, range, and section it identifies. 

For emphasis, the following paragraphs are set apart to 
describe abbreviations as used in marking corners and acces- 
sories: 

S. C. — Standard Corner. The mark necessary, in addition 
to township, range, and section, on any corner erected on a 
base line or standard parallel. 

C. C. — Closing Corner. Where lines are run at right angles 
to, and intersect a line already established at a point to the 
right or left of an established corner more than the allowable 
limits of 50 links, a new corner is erected called a closing 
corner. In addition to the marks for township, range, and 
section on that corner, the letters C. C. are added. 



T. — Township. 

R. — Range. 

S. — Section. 

l^ S. — Quarter-section Corner. A point equidistant between 
two section corners. 

M. C. — Meander Corner. The point where any regular 
standard, township or section line intersects the borders of a 
meanderable stream or body of water. 

S. M. C— Special Meander Corner. A meander corner estab- 
lished on any line belonging to the system of rectangular sur- 
veying, when that line is not a standard, township, or section 
line, e. g., lines subdividing the interior of a section. 

A. M. C. — Auxiliary Meander Corners. Meander corners on 
a line not belonging to the system of rectangular surveying. 

B. T. — Bearing Tree. An accessory to a corner. 
B. O. — Bearing Object. An accessory to a corner. 

■^V", Q — Witness Corner. A corner established on a line to 
witness the position of a regular corner, when that corner 
falls within an obstruction (not meanderable), or where that 
corner would be apt to be destroyed by the elements later. 
A witness corner thus established, must be within twenty 
chains of the regular corner which would fall within the ob- 
struction. 

W. P. — Witness Point. A point erected to mark the limits 
of an inaccessible marsh or other obstruction (not meander- 
able), when the margin of that obstruction is more than 
twenty chains from a regular corner which would fall within 
such obstruction. 

The following are the different kinds of corners necessary 
to perpetuate certain points established in surveying: 

1. Standard Township Corner. 

2. Closing Township Corner. 

3. Corner common to four townships. 



4. Corner common to two townships only. 

5. Corner referring to one township only, 

6. Standard Section Corner. 

7. Closing Section Corner. 

8. Corner common to four sections. 

9. Section corner common to two sections only. 
10. Section corner referring to one section only, 
n. Quarter-section Corner. 

12. Standard Quarter-section Corner. 

13. Quarter-section corner common to two quarters of only 
one section. 

14. Meander Corner. 

15. Special Meander Corner. 

16. Auxiliary Meander Corner. 

17. Witness Corner. 

18. Witness Point. 

CORNER CONSTRUCTIONS. 

Upon arriving at the point for the establishment of a cor- 
ner, the surveyor takes into consideration the character of 
the country, and then the requisites at hand, and uses his 
own judgment as to the best construction to use. He has the 
choice of eight different constructions, and we herewith give 
the general requirements for those constructions: 

1. Stone for corner, with pits and mound of earth for 
accessories. 

2. Stone for corner, with mound of stone for an accessory. 

3. Stone for corner, v/ith bearing trees for accessories. 

4. Post for corner, with pits and mound of earth for ac- 
cessories. 

5. Post for corner, with bearing trees for accessories. 

6. Mound of earth raised over deposit of marked stone, 
glass, charred stake, or quart of charcoal for corner, with pits 
and stake in one pit, for accessories. 

40 



7. Tree in place for corner, with pits and mound of earth 
for accessories. 

8. Tree in place for corner, with bearing trees for acces- 
sories. 

It would require too much space to elaborately describe 
each and every one of the constructions for all of the various 
kinds of corners, so the author refers you to the "Manual of 
Surveying Instructions for the Survey of the Public Lands of 
the United States" for that information, and only gives in 
detail the construction likely to be found in a timbered or 
partly timbered country. 

In the older surveys, the requirements were not so strictly 
carried out as in later years, and evidences to identify the 
original corners are sometimes lacking. The surveyor often 
mentioned in the field notes certain bearing trees, which 
were not marked as required, but only slightly blazed. Some- 
times, also, when there were numerous trees at hand suitable 
for bearing trees, only a stone was set for a corner. So many 
corners were established in old timber land surveys by the 
use of the stake for a corner, without the accessories as re- 
quired, the stake having decayed, it is almost impossible to 
arrive at the true position for that corner without actually 
taking the measurements from the nearest known corner. 

The following requirements are necessary for the estab- 
lishment of corners and their accessories; 

"No stones measuring less than 504 cubic inches, or less 
than 12 inches in length or 3 inches in thickness will be used 
for corners. Stones 18 inches long or less will be set with 
two-thirds of their length in the ground and those more than 
18 inches long will have three-fourths of their length in the 
ground. 

"When a corner falls on rock in place, or on a boulder, a 
cross (X) will be made at the exact corner point and wit- 

41 



nessed by the proper number of bearing trees (if they are 
available), and in absence of suitable trees, a mound of stones 
will be raised. Owing to the difficulty of identifying the cor- 
ner coming upon a flat rock in place, when only a cross is cut 
thereon, it is imperative that some adequate witness be used 
and marked. 

"Mounds of stone, or of stone covered with earth, must 
never be built around the corner stone, but separate. When 
stones are necessary to hold the corner stone upright and 
firm, they should be in addition to the witness mound, and 
not a part of it. 

"Corners referring to one, two, or four townships or sec- 
tions, not identical with standard or closing corners, will be 
set with their faces directed NE. and SW., and NW. and SE., 
while all other corners will be set with their sides facing the 
cardinal points; except corners on boundaries of reservations 
and private land claims, which will be set squarely in line." 

Bearing trees must not be less than 4 inches in diameter, 
and must not stand over 300 links from the corner they wit- 
ness; except, where such trees are few but accessible. Bear- 
ing trees should be marked with plain letters and Arabic 
figures, as also should posts for corners. The tool used for 
this purpose is a scribing-tool or gouge and letters or figures 
made with any other kind of an instrument are not to be con- 
founded with work done by deputy U. S. surveyors. 

SPECIFIC CONSTRUCTIONS FOR TIMBERED COUNTRY. 

The following are the specific constructions for Nos. 3, 5 
and 8 of the eight constructions possible. In corners common 
to four sections, all eight specific constructions are given, in 
order to give the reader a clear idea of all the constructions: 

42 



STANDARD TOWNSHIP CORNERS. 

"3. Stone, with Bearing Trees. 

Set a stone, x x ins., ins. in the ground, 

for standard cor. of Tps. 13 N., Rs. 21 and 22 E., marked S. C. 
on N.; with 6 grooves on N. B. and W. faces; from which 

A , ins. diam., bears N. ° E., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 13 N., R. 22 B., S. 31 B. T. 

A , ins. diam., bears N. ° W., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 13 N., R. 21 E., S. 36 B. T. 
"5. Post, with Bearing Trees. 

Set a post. 3 ft. long, 4 ins. sq., 24 ins. in the ground, 

for standard cor. of Tps. 13 N., Rs. 22 and 23 E., marked 
S. C. T. 13 N. on North, 
R. 23 E., S. 31 on East, and 

R. 22 E„ S. 36 on west face; with 6 grooves on north, east, 
and west faces, from which 

A , ins. diam., bears N. ° E., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 13 N., R. 23 E., S. 31 B. T. 

A , ins. diam., bears N. ° W., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 13 N., R. 22 E., S. 36 B. T. 
"8. Tree Corner, with Bearing Trees. 

A , ins. diam., for standard cor. of Tps. 13 N., Rs. 22 

and 23 B. I mark 

S. C. T. 13 N. on north, 
R. 23 E., S. 31 on east, and 

R. 22 E„ S. 36 on west side; with 6 notches on north, east 
and west sides; from which 

A , ins. diam., bears N. ° E., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 13 N., R. 23 E., S. 31 B. T. 

A , ins. diam., bears N. ° W., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 13 N., R. 22 E., S. 36 B. T. 

43 



CLOSING TOWNSHIP CORNERS. 

"3. Stone, with Bearing Trees. 

Set a stone, x x ins., ins. in ground, for 

closing cor. of Tps. 4 N., Rs. 2 and 3 W., marked C. C. on 
south; with 6 grooves on south, east, and west faces; from 
which 

A , ins. diam., bears S. ° E., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 4 N., R. 2 W., S. 6 B. T. 

A , ins. diam., bears S. ° W., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 4 N., R. 3 W., S. 1 B. T. 

"5. Post, with Bearing Trees. 

Set a post, 3 ft. long, 4 ins. sq., 24 ins. in the ground, 

for closing cor. of Tps. 4 N., Rs. 2 and 3 W., marked 

C. C. T. 4 N. on south, 

R. 2 W., S. 6 on east, and 

R. 3 W., S. 1 on west face; with 6 grooves on south, east, 
and west faces; from which 

A , ins. diam., bears S. ° E., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 4 N., R. 2 W., S. 6 B. T. 

A , ins. diam., bears S. °W., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 4 N., R. 3 W., S. 1 B. T. 

"8. Tree Corner, with Bearing Trees. 

A , ins. diam., for closing cor. of Tps. 4 N., Rs. 2 



and 3 W., I mark 

C. C. T 4 N. on south, 
R. 2 W., S. 6 on east, and 

R. 3 W., S. 1 on west side, with 6 notches on south, east, 
and west sides; from which 

A , ins. diam., bears S. ° E., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 4 N., R. 2 W., S. 6 B. T. 

A , ins. diam., bears S. °W., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 4 N., R. 3 W., S. 1 B. T. 

44 



CORNERS COMMON TO FOUR TOWNSHIPS. 

"3. Stone, with Bearing Trees. 

Set a stone, x x ins., ins. in the ground, 

for cor. of Tps. 2 and 3 N., Rs. 2 and 3 W., marked with 6 
notches on each edge, from which 

A , ins. diam., bears N. ° E., lk:s. dist., marked 

T. 3 N., R. 2 W., S. 31 B. T. 

A , ins. diam., bears S. ° E., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 2 N., R. 2 W., S. 6 B. T. 

A , ins. diam., bears S. ° W., iks. dist., marked 

T. 2 N., R. 3 W., S. 1 B. T. 

A , ins. diam., bears N. ° W., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 3 N., R. 3 W., S. 36 B. T. 
"5. Post, with Bearing Trees. 

Set a post, 3 ft. long, 4ins. sq., 24 ins. in the ground, 

for cor. of Tps. 2 and 3 N., Rs. 2 and 3 W., marked. 
T. 3 N., S. 31 on NE., 
R. 2 W., S. 6 on SE., 
T. 2 N., S. 1 on SW., and 

R. 3 W., S. 38 on NW. face, with 6 notches on each edge; 
from which 

(Bearing trees same as No. 3.) 
"8. Tree Corner, with Bearing Trees. 

A , ins. diam., for cor. of Tps. 2 and 3 N., Rs. 2 and 

3 W., I mark 

T. 3 N., S. 31 on NB., 
R. 2 W., S. 6 on SE., 
T. 2 N., S. 1 on SW., and 

R. 3 W., S. 3G on NW. side, with 6 notches facing each 
cardinal point; from which 

(Bearing trees same as No. 3.) 

45 



CORNERS COMMON TO TWO TOWNSHIPS ONLY. 

"3. Stone, with Bearing Trees. 

Set a stone, x x ins., ins. in the ground, 

for cor. of Tp. 2 N., R. 5 W., and Tp. 3 N., R. 6 W., on N. 
boundary Tp. 2 N., R. 6 W., marked with, 6 notches on north 
and west edges; from which 

A , ins. diam., bears N. ° E., Iks. dist, marked 

T. 2 N., R. 5 W., S. 6 B. T. 

A , ins. diam., bears N. ° W., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 3 N., R. 6 W., S. 36 B. T. 

"5. Post, with Bearing Trees. 

Set a post, 3 ft. long, 4 ins. sq., 24 ins. in the ground, 

for cor. of Tps. 2 and 3 N., R. 7 W., on west boundary Tp. 3 
N., R. 6 W., marked. 

T. 2 N., R. 7 W., S. 1 on SW., and 

T. 3 N., R. 7 W., S. 36 on NW. face, with 6 notches on north 
and west edges; from which 

A , ins. diam., bears S. ° W., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 2 N., R. 7 W., S. 1 B. T. 

A , ins. diam., bears N. ° W., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 3 N., R. 7 W., S. 36 B. T. 

"8. Tree Corner, with Bearing Trees. 

A , ins. diam., for cor. of Tps. 2 and 3 N., R. 7 W., 

on west boundary Tp. 3 N., R. 6 W., I mark 

T. 2 N., R. 7 W., S. 1 on SW., and 

T. 3 N., R. 7 W., S. 36 on NW. side, with 6 notches facing north 
and west; from which 

(Bearing trees same as No. 5. ) 

CORNERS REFERRING TO ONE TOWNSHIP ONLY. 

"3. stone, with Bearing Tree. 

Set a stone, x x ins., ins. in ground for 

NE. cor. of Tp. 2 N., R. 6 W., marked with 6 notches on south 
and west edges; from which 

46 



A , ins. diam., bears S. ° W., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 2 N., R. 6 W., S. 1 B. T. 

"5. Post, with Bearing Tree. 

Set a post, 3 ft. long, 4 ins. sq., 24 ins. in the ground, 

for SW. cor. of Tp. 3 N., R. 6 W., marked 

T. 3 N., R. 6 W., S. 31 on NE., 

S. 1 on SE., 

T. 2 N., R. 7 W., S. 1 on SW., and 

S. 1 on NW. face, with 6 notches on north and east edges; 
from which 

A , ins, diam., bears N. ° E., llvs. dist., marked 

T. 3 N., R. 6 W., S 31 B. T. 

"8. Tree Corner, with Bearing Trees. 

A , ins. diam., for SE. cor. of Tp. 4 N., R. 6 W., I 

mark 

S. 6 on NE., 

T. 3 N., R. 5 W., S. 6 on SE., 

S. 6 on SW., and 

T. 4 N., R. 6 W., S. 36 on NW. side, with 6 notches facing 
north and west; from which 

A , ins. diam., bears N. ° W., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 4 N., R. 6 W., S. 36 B. T. 

STANDARD SECTION CORNER. 

"3. Stone, with Bearing Trees. 

Set a stone, x x ins., ins. in the ground, 

for standard cor, of Sees. 33 and 34, marked S. C. on north; 
with 3 grooves on east and west faces; from which 

A , ins. diam., bears N. ° E., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 13 N., R. 21 E., S. 34 B. T. 

A , ins. diam., bears N. ° W., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 13 N., R. 21 E., S. 33 B. T. 

Set a post, 3 ft. long, 4 ins. sq., 24 ins. in the ground, 

for standard cor. of Sees. 34 and 35, marked 

47 



S. C. T. 13 N., R. 21 on north, 
"5. Post, with Bearing Trees. 
S. 35 on east, and 

S. 34 on west face, with 2 grooves on east, and 4 grooves on 
west face, from which 

A , ins. diam., bears N. ° E., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 13 N., R. 21 E., S. 35 B. T. 
A , ins. diam., bears N. ° W., Iks, dist., marked 

T. 13 N., R. 21 E., S. 34 B. T. 
"8. Tree Corner, with Bearing Trees. 

A , ins. diam., for standard cor. of Sees. 35 and 3G, 

I mark 

S. C. T. 13 N., R. 22 E. on north, 
S. 36 on east, and 

S. 35 on west side, with 1 notch on east, and 5 notches on 
west side, from which 

A , ins. diam., bears N. ° E., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 13 N., R. 22 E., S. 36 B. T. 
A , ins. diam., bears N. ° W., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 13 N., R. 22 E., S. 35 B. T. 

CLOSING SECTION CORNERS. 

"3. Stone, ivith Bearing Trees. 

Set a stone, x x ins., ins. in the ground, 

for closing cor. of Sees. 1 and 2, marked C. C. on south; with 
1 groove on east and 5 grooves on west face, from which 

A , ins. diam., bears S. ° E., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 4 N., R. 3 W., S. 1 B. T. 

A , ins. diam., bears S. ° W., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 4 N., R. 3 W., S. 2 B. T. 

"5. Post, with Bearing Trees. 

Set a post, 3 ft. long, 4 ins. sq., 24 ins. in the ground, 

for closing cor. of Sees. 1 and 2, marked 

48 



C. C. T. 4 N., R. 3 W. on south, 

S. 1 on east, and 

S. 2 on west face, with 1 groove on east, and 5 grooves on 
west face; from which 

A , ins. diam., bears S. ° E., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 4 N., R. 3 W., S. 1 B. T. 

A , ins. diam., bears S. ° W., Iks. dist., marlved 

T. 4 N., R. 3 W., S. 2 B. T. 

"8. Tree Corner, with Bearing Trees. 

A , ins. diam., for closing cor. Sees. 1 and 2, I mark 

C. C. T. 4 N., R. 3 W. on south, 

S. 1 on east, and 

S. 2 on west side, with 1 notch on east and 5 notches on 
west side; from which 

(Bearing trees same as No. 5.) 

CORNERS COMMON TO FOUR SECTIONS. 

"1. Stone, ivith Pits and Mound of Earth. 

Set a stone, x x ins., ins. in the ground, 

for cor. of Sees. 14, 15, 22 and 23, marked with 3 notches on 
south and 2 notches on east edge; dig pits, 18x18x12 ins., in 
each sec, 5i/^ ft. dist.; and raise a mound of earth, 4 ft. base, 
2 ft. high, west of corner. 

"2. Stone, with Mound of Stone. 

Set a stone, x x ins., ins. in the ground, 

for cor. of Sees. 14, 15, 22 and 23, marked with 3 notches on 
south and 2 notches on east edge; and raise a mound of stone, 
2 ft. base, li/^ ft. high, west of corner. Pits impracticable. 

"3. Stone, with Bearing Trees. 

Set a stone, x x ins. ,^— ins. in the ground, 

for cor. of Sees. 9, 10, 15 and 16, marked with 4 notches on 
south, and 3 notches on east edge; from which 

A , ins. diam., bears N. ° E., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 2 N., R. 2 W., S. 10 B. T. 

49 



— , ins, diam., bears S. ° E., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 2 N., R. 2 W., S. 15 B. T. 
— , ins. diam., bears S. °W., Iks. dist., marked 



T. 2 N., R. 2 W., S. 16 B. T. 
— , ins. diam., bears N. ° W., Iks. dist., marked 



T. 2 N., R. 2 W.. S. 9 B. T. 

"4. Post, with Pit and Mound of Earth. 

Set a post, 3 ft. long, 4 ins. sq., with marked stone 

(charred stake or quart of charcoal), 24 ins. in the ground, 
for cor. of Sees. 15, 16, 21 and 22, marked 

T. 2 N., S. 15 on NE., 

R. 2 W., S. 22 on SE., 

S. 21 on SW., and 

S. 16 on NW. face, with 3 notches on south and east edges; 
dig pits, 18x18x12 ins., in each sec, 5i^ ft. dist.; and raise a 
mound of earth, 4 ft. base, 2 ft. high, west of cor. 

"5. Post, with Bearing Trees. 

Set a post, 3 ft. long, 4 ins. sq., 24 ins. in the ground, 

for cor. of Sees. 25, 26, 35 and 36, marked 

T. 2 N., S. 25 on NE., 

R. 2 W., S. 36 on SE., 

S. 35 on SW., and 

S. 26 on NW. face, with 1 notch on south and east edges; 
from which 

A , ins. diam., bears N. ° E., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 2 N., R. 2 W., S. 25 B. T. 

A , ins. diam., bears S. ° E., Iks. dist., marked 



2 N., R. 2 W., S. 36 B. T. 

, ins. diam., bears S. °W., Iks. dist., marked 

2 N., R. 2 W., S. 35 B. T. 
, ins. diam., bears N. ° W., Iks. dist., marked 



T. 2 N., R. 2 W., S. 26 B. T. 
"6. Mound, with Deposit, and Stake in Pit. 

50 



Deposit a marked stone (charred stake or quart of char- 
coal) 12 ins. in the ground, for cor. of Sees. 25, 26, 35 and 
36; dig pits, 18x18x12 ins., in each sec. 4 ft. dist.; and raise a 
mound of earth, 4 ft. base, 2 ft. high, over deposit. 

In SE. pit drive a stake, 2 ft. long, 2 ins. sq., 12 ins. in the 
ground, marked 

T. 2 N., S. 25 on NE., 

R. 2 W., S. 36 on SE., 

S. 35 on SW., and 

S. 26 on NW. faces, with 1 notch on south and east edges. 

"7. Tree Corner, with Pits and Mound of Earth. 

A , ins. diam., for cor. Sees. 29, 30, 31 and 32, I mark 

T. 2 N., S. 29 on NE., 

R. 2 W., S. 32 on SE., 

S. 31 on SW., and 

S. 30 on NW. side, with 1 notch on south and 5 notches on 
east side; dig pits, 18x18x12 ins., in each sec, 5 ft. dist.; and 
raise a mound of earth around tree. 

"8. Tree Corner, with Bearing Trees. 

A , ins. diam., for cor. of Sees. 5, 6, 7 and 8, I mark 

T. 2 N., S. 5 on NE., 

R. 2 W., S. 8 on SE., 

S. 7 on SW., and 

S. 6 on NW. side, with 5 notches on south and east sides; 
from which 

A , ins. diam., bears. N. ° E., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 2 N., R. 2 W., S. 5 B. T. 

A , ins. diam., bears S. ° E., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 2 N., R. 2 W., S. 8 B. T. 

A , ins. diam., bears S. ° W., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 2 N., R. 2 W., S. 7 B. T. 

A , ins. diam., bears N. ° W., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 2 N., R. 2 W., S. 6 B. T. 

51 



SECTION CORNERS COMMON TO TWO SECTIONS ONLY. 

"3. Stone, with Bearing Trees. (Tp. 3 N., R. 7 W.) 

Set a stone, x x ins., ins. in the ground, 

for cor. of Sees. 28 and 29, marked with 4 notches on east 
edge; from which 

A , ins. diam., bears N. ° B., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 3 N., R. 7 W., S. 28 B. T. 

A , ins. diam., bears N. ° V/., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 3 N., R. 7 W., S. 29 B. T. 
"5. Post, with Beariyig Trees. (Tp. 3 N., R. 5 W.) 

Set a post, 3 ft. long, 4 ins. sq., 24 ins. in the ground, 

for cor. of Sees. 24 and 25, marked 
T. 3 N., S. 25 on SW., and 

R. 5 W., S. 24 on NW. face, with 4 notches on north, and 2 
notches on south edge; from which 

A , ins. diam., bears S. ° W., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 3 N., R. 5 W., S. 25 B. T. 

A , ins. diam., bears N. ° W., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 3 N., R. 5 W., S. 24 B. T. 
"8. Tree Corner, with Bearing Trees. (Tp. 3 N., R. 7 W.) 

A , ins. diam., for cor. of Sees. 22 and 27, I mark 

T. 3 N., S. 27 on SW., and 

R. 7 W., S. 22 on NW. side, with 4 notches on north, and 2 
notches on south side; from which 

A , ins. diam., bears S. ° W., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 3 N., R. 7 W., S. 27 B. T. 

A , ins. diam., bears N. ° W., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 3 N., R. 7 W., S. 22 B. T. 

SECTION CORNER REFERRING TO ONE SECTION ONLY. 

"3. Stone, with Bearing Tree. 

Set a stone, x x ins.,— ins. in the ground, 

for SW. cor. of Sec. 12, marked with 1 notch on east edge; 
from which 

52 



A , ins. diam., bears N. ° E., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 2 N., R. 5 W., S. 12 B. T. 

"5. Post, with Bearing Tree. (Tp. 2 N., R. 5 W.) 

Set a post, 3 ft. long, 4 ins. sq., 24 ins. in the ground, 

for SW. cor. of Sec. 12; marked. 

T. 2 N., S. 12 on NE., 

R. 5 W., S. 13 on SE., 

S. 13 on SW., and 

S. 13 on NW. face, with 1 notch on east edge; from which 

A , ins. diam., bears N. ° E., Iks. dist., markeu 

T. 2 N., R. 5 W., S. 12 B. T. 

"8. Tree Corner, with Bearing Tree. (Tp. 3 N., R. 5 W.) 

A , ins. diam., for NW. cor. of Sec. 10, I mark 

T. 3 N., S. 9 on NB., 

R. 5 W., S. 10 on SE., 

S. 9 on SW., and 

S. 9 on NW. side, v/ith 5 notches on south, and 3 notches 
on east side; from which 

A , ins. diam., bears S. ° E., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 3 N., R. 5 W., S. 10 B. T. 

QUARTER-SECTION CORNERS. 

"3. Stone, with Bearing Trees. 

Set a stone, x x ins., ins. in the ground, 

for 1/4 sec. cor. marked % on west face; from which 

A , ins. diam., bears N. ° E., Iks. dist., marked 

1^ S. 16 B. T. 

A , ins. diam., bears N. °W., Iks. dist., marlved 

14 S. 17 B. T. 

"5. Post, with Bearing Trees. 

Set a post, 3 ft. long, 3 ins. sq., 24 ins. in the ground, 

for l^ sec. cor. marked % S. 21 on west face and 22 on east 
face; from which 

53 



A , ins. diam., bears S. ° E., Iks. dist., marked 

14 S. 22 B. T. 

A , ins. diam., bears S. ° W., Iks. dist, marked 

l^ S. 21 B. T. 
"8. Tree Corner, with Beari7ig Trees. 

A , ins. diam., for % sec. cor. I mark % S. 20 on 

north side and 29 on south side; from which 

A , ins. diam., bears N. ° W., Iks. dist., marked 

14 S. 20 B. T. 

A , ins. diam., bears S. ° W., Iks. dist., marked 

1/4 S. 29 B. T. 
Note. — Up until the year 1897 the section number was not 
added to the quarter-section corner, nor to its accessories, so 
in surveys made before that date, you will find on corners and 
accessories only the marks 14 or i/4 S. B. T. 

STANDARD QUARTER SECTION CORNER. 

"All standard quarter-section corners, on base lines or 
standard parallels, will have the letters S. C. (for standard 
corner), precede the marking 14 or i^ S., as the case may be; 
such corners will be established in all other respects like 
other quarter-section corners. 

"When bearing trees are described for standard quarter- 
section corners, each tree will be marked S. C. i/4 S. B. T." 

QUARTER-SECTION CORNERS COMMON TO TWO QUARTERS OF ONLY 
ONE SECTION. 

These corners will be similar in all respects to those that 
are common to four quarters of two sections. 

MEANDER CORNERS. 

"3. Stone, with Bearing Trees. 

Set a stone, x x ins., ins. in the ground, 

for meander cor. of fractional Sees. 26 and 35, with 1 groove 
on south face, marked 

54 



M. C. on west face; from which 

A , ins. diam., bears N. ° E., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 15 N., R. 20 E., S. 26 M. C. B. T. 

A , ins. diam., bears S. ° E., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 15 N., R. 20 E., S. 35 M. C. B. T. 
"5. Post, loith Bearing Trees. 

Set a post, 3 ft. long, 4 ins. sq., 24 ins. in the ground, 

for meander cor. of fracl. Sees. 25 and 26, marked 
M. C. on north, 
T. 15 N. on south, 
R. 20 E., S. 25 on east, and 
S. 26 on west face; from which 

A , ins. diam., bears S. ° E., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 15 N., R. 20 E., S. 25 M. C. B. T. 

A , ins. diam., bears S. °W., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 15 N., R. 20 E., S. 26 M. C. B. T. 
"8. Tree Corner, tvith Bearing Trees. (Special meander 
corner.) 

A , ins. diam., for a special meander cor, of fracl. 

east and west halves of Sec. 33, I mark 
S. M. C. on north, 
T. 15 N. on south, 
R. 20 E., S. 33 on east, and 
S. 33 on west side; from which 

A , ins. diam., bears S. ° E., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 15 N., R. 20 E., S. 33 S. M. C. B. T. 

A , ins. diam., bears S. °W., Iks. dist., marked 

T. 15 N., R. 20 E., S. 33 S. M. C. B. T. 

You will observe, if you will carefully study the foregoing 
examples, that they are given for as many different section 
corners as space would permit; also that the notching of 
stones, posts, and trees for corners is done in such a manner 
that by counting the notches, the location of the corner can 

55 



be easily determined; e. g., if we have a stone for corner, with 
3 notches on east and 4 on south face, it means that the cor- 
ner is three miles from the township line on the east, and four 
miles from the south boundary; this would make the corner 
in question the corner to Sections 9, 10, 15 and 16. 

All section corners on township lines are notched on both 
sides facing the line; the notches corresponding to the num- 
ber of miles such corners stand, from the two township cor- 
ners which limit such lines. All interior section corners are 
notched on south and east sides, to indicate the number of 
miles such corners are from the south and east boundaries 
of the township. 

By carefully examining every section-corner stone, you will 
be able to verify by the notches the location of the corner, 
without taking into consideration any of the accessories of 
that corner. In case the accessory is a bearing tree, and the 
marks are deeply set in the tree by overgrowth, with the cor- 
ner stone still firmly imbedded showing no indications of hav- 
ing been disturbed for many years, the notches can be entirely 
relied upon to determine the exact position of the corner. 

THE DECLINATION OF THE MAGNETIC NEEDLE. 

It has previously been explained, that true north is the 
direction from a given point, which if continued, would event- 
ually pass through the North Pole; i. e., it would be a true 
meridian. If we use an ordinary magnetic compass with 
which to determine the exact position of the North Pole, we 
find we must know how much declination the magnetic needle 
should require before we can determine the Pole's true posi- 
tion; 1. e., we must know how many degrees east or west the 
needle must point, in order that the line marked N. on the 
compass should point true north. 

From time to time, the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey 
issues an isogonic chart, showing the difference in declination 

56 



at all points in the United States. Running southeast, from 
near the eastern borders of Lake Superior to a point just east 
of Charleston, South Carolina, is an imaginary irregularly 
curved line, which is designated on the chart and is known as 
"the line of no variation." If a magnetic compass is set any- 
where on this line, the needle would point directly north; if 
set anywhere east of the line, it would point west of true 
north (variation west); and if set west of the line, it would 
point east of true north (variation east). For example, if 
the compass is set at New York City, the variation would be 
about 9° west, while if set at Portland, Oregon, it would be 
about 22 ° 30' east. 

For some unknov/n reason the magnetic declination has 
been constantly changing. The change noted, on the Pacific 
Coast, since the first surveys were made, is to the effect that 
the needle points approximately one degree farther east for 
the lapse of twenty years of time; for example, if a survey 
was made in the year 1870 and the lines run on 20° east, it 
would now, in 1910, require a variation for the same line of 
about 22° 30' east. 

OBTAINING THE VARIATION. 

For a cruiser to obtain the true variation for a line, run 
several years ago, it is necessary for him to know just what 
j-eai and variation the old line was run on; then to calculate 
by the lapse of time, what the variation for the present time 
should be. This will give you only the approximate varia- 
tion, but it is a great help in making the trial run. After 
making the trial run, and finding what the departure is from 
the corner run to; that is, the distance your line falls to the 
right or left of the established corner, you can then calculate 
by the following table just what variation the old line runs 
on at the present time: 

57 



80 chains 
(1 mile) 


60 chains 
(H mile) 


40 chains 
VA mile) 


20 chains 
(^ mile) 


Min. Depar- 

of ture 
angle in ins. 


Min. 

of 
angle 


Depar- 
ture 
in ins. 


Min. Depar- 

of ture 
angle in ins. ! 


Min. Depar- 

of ture 
angle in ins. 


1 18.48 


1 


13.86 


1 9.24 


1 4.62 


15 277.2 


15 


207.9 


15 138.6 


15 69.3 


30 554.4 


30 


415.8 


30 277.2 


30 138.6 


45 831.6 


45 


623.7 


45 415.8 


45 207.9 


60 1108.8 


60 


831.6 


60 554.4 


60 277.2 



Supposing, for example, that in running a half mile of old 
line on a variation of twenty degrees east, you fell to the left 
of the objective corner 277.2 inches (23 ft. 1.1 in.). By refer- 
ring to the table for departure under the V2 mile column, you 
find that 277.2 inches in departure represents 30 minutes of 
angle (i^ degree); then it is evident that the needle of the 
compass was pointing too far east, which threw you to the 
left of the objective corner; instead of running on twenty 
degrees east your variation should have been 19°30 east. If 
you should fall to the right of the objective corner, the 
method of finding the true variation by measuring the depar- 
ture, would be just reversed. 



58 



INDEX 

PART I. 

Page, No. 

Acreage 21-24 

Acre, Area of g 22 

Aneroid barometer 4 

Aneroid readings 26 

Area of an acre g 22 

Average tree, The 12 

Bark, Thickness of I3 

Barometer, Aneroid 4 

Box compass 4 

Breakage of timber in falling I3 

Circle-acre, Radius of I7 22 

Circle-acre, Method of cruising I7 

Clear logs 12 

Compass, How to set 5 

Contents of logs g 

Contents of trees H 

Contents of rectangle, triangle, parallelogram, trapezoid, 

trapezium 23 24 

Cordwood, How to figure standing timber into 13 

Cruiser's handy table .' g 

Cruising, Different systems of I5 

Cruising by the strip-acre method 15^ 16 

Cruising by the circle-acre method I7 

Cruising by the square-acre method Ig 

Cruising by double-running I9 20 

Cruising by the tree-count system 20 21 

Cruiser's log table 9 10 

Cruiser's work, The I4 

Cruiser's outfit 4 

Different systems of cruising 15 

59 



INDEX— Continued 

Page. No. 

Double-running 19, 20 

Elevations by aneroid readings 26 

Getting located on land 5 

Grading timber 11, 12 

How to pace 7 

How to set the compass 5, 6 

How to find the contents of trees 11 

How to figure standing timber into cordwood 13 

Length of a pace 7^ 8 

Lines, How to run 6, 7 

Log table 9, 10 

Logs, Contents of 8, 9 

Long measure 8 

Lots, How to figure how many paces long 21, 22 

Making camp 5 

Making a report 24, 25 

One-third of an acre in a circle, Radius of 22 

One-third of an acre, Size of 22 

Outfit, Cruiser's 4 

Pace, Length of 7, 8 

Pacing 7 

Parallelogram, Rule for calculating contents of 24 

Preliminary cruising 19 

Railroad ties, Dimension of 13 

Rectangle, Rule for calculating contents of 23 

Report, Making a 24, 25 

Rule for finding the contents of logs 13 

Rules for finding circumference, diameter or area of a 

circle 23 

Rules for calculating the contents of rectangle, triangle, 

parallelogram, trapezoid or trapezium 23, 24 

Running lines 6, 7 

Setting the compass 5 

60 



INDEX— Continued 

Page. No. 

Sight compass 4 

Single run 19 

Square acre,. Dimensions of 19, 22 

Square measure, Table of 8 

Strip-acre, Method of cruising 15, 16 

Square-acre, Method of cruising 18 

Soundness of dead timber 13 

Surface clear 12 

Surveyor's tables 7 

Table giving contents of ties 13 

Tables, Surveyor's 7 

Table Cruiser's handy 8 

Table of long measure 8 

Table of square measure 8 

Table, Log 9, 10 

Taper of trees 11, 13 

Things you should know 12, 13 

Thickness of bark 13 

Ties, Dimension of 13 

Timber, Grading of 11, 12 

Timber, Soundness of dead 13 

Timber, breakage of 13 

Topography ; 26 

Trapezoid, Rule for calculating contents of 24 

Trapezium, Rule for calculating contents of 24 

Trees, Contents of 11 

Trees, Taper of 11, 13 

Tree, The average 12 

Tree-count system of cruising 20, 21 

Triangle, Rule for calculating the contents of 23 

61 



INDEX— Continued 

PART II. 

Page, No. 

Abbreviations used in marking corners 38 

Accessories of corners 38 

Auxiliary meander corners, Description of 37 

Auxiliary meander corner, Abbreviation for 39 

Base line, Location of 27 

Bearing trees, limits of distance from corners 42 

Bearing trees, Regulations for size of 42 

Bearing tree, Abbreviation for 39 

Bearing tree, Explanation of 38 

Bearing object. Explanation of 38 

Bearing object, Abbreviation for 39 

Blazes along lines 35, 36 

Blazes, How determined 36 

Closing corner. Description of 38 

Closing corner. Limits for establishment of 84, 38 

Closing corner, Abbreviation for 39 

Closing township corner 39, 44 

Closing section corner 40, 48, 49 

Convergency, Explanation of 28, 29 

Corner accessories 38 

Corner constructions 40, 41 

Corners common to four sections 40, 49-51 

Corners common to four townships 39, 45 

Corners common to two tov/nships only 40, 46 

Corner on fiat boulder. Necessary markings for 41, 42 

Corner referring to one township only 40, 46, 47 

Declination of the magnetic needle 56, 57 

Departure table. Use of in obtaining variation 58 

Different kinds of corners established in surveying 39 

Explanation of convergency 28, 29 

Fractional acreage, where found in townships 29, 33, 34 

62 



INDEX— Continued 

General plan of surveying ^_ 27 

Guide meridians 27 

How corners are perpetuated 38 

How to determine blazes from abrasions 36 

Initial points 27 

Irregularities of townships 29, 30 33-35 

Lapse of time, Effect on old surveys '../... 57 

Limits for closing township lines 31 

Limits for closing section lines 34 

Line trees 05 

Lines, length of between section rorners 29 

Location of quarter-section corners 29 32 

Magnetic needle. Declination of 56 57 

Marking of trees along lines '35 

Meander corner, Description of 37 

Meander corner. Abbreviation for 39 

Meander corner. Construction for 54^ 55 

Meandering, Requirements for 37 

Mound of stone, Regulation for 42 

Negligence of surveyors 4I 

Notches on stones, posts and trees for corners 42, 55 

Notches on corners, Explanation of 55 56 

Numbering of sections '27 

Numbering of townships 27 28 

Obtaining the variation 57 53 

Perpetuation of corners 33 

Position of corners with reference to lines 42 

Principal meridians 27 

Quarter-section corner. Location of 29 32 

Quarter-section corner, Abbreviation for 39 

Quarter-section corner. Regulation for construction of.. 53, 64 

Range, Abbreviation for 39 

63 



INDEX— Continued 

Page No. 

Sections, Abbreviation for 39 

Sections, Numbering of 27 

Scribing-tool, Use of 42 

Section corner common to two sections only 40, 52 

Section corner referring to one section only 40, 52, 53 

Sight trees 35 

Special meander corner, Abbreviation for 39 

Special meander corner, Description of 37 

Special meander corner. Construction for 55 

Specific construction for timbered country 42, 55 

Standard township corner, Description of 39, 43 

Standard corners, Description of 38 

Standard section corner. Description of 40, 47, 48 

Standard corner, Abbreviation for 38 

Standard quarter-section corner, Description of 40, 54 

Standard parallels, Explanation of 27 

Standard parallels for Oregon and Washington (table).... 28 

Stone for corner. Regulations for size of 41 

Table of departure 58 

Table of standard parallels in Oregon and Washington 28 

Township, Abbreviation for 39 

Townships, Numbering of . 27, 28 

Township, Irregularities of 29, 30, 33-35 

Township exteriors. How surveyed 30 

Township interiors, How surveyed 32 

Trees, How marked along lines 35 

Use of departure table in obtaining variation 58 

Variation explained 56, 57 

Variation, How to obtain 57, 58 

Witness corner. When established 87 

Witness corner. Abbreviation for 39 

Witness point, When established 36 

Witness point, Abbreviation for 39 

64 



^ocv 1^ 19^0 



One copy del. to Cat. Div. 



r-.-k 




